Narrative textiles of India

                              Phulkari - Ancient Textile of Punjab
Phulkari, a rural tradition of handmade embroidery, literally meaning " flower work ", was perpetuated by the women of Punjab (North-west India & Pakistan) during the 19th century and till the beginning of the 20th century.Probably brought to the Indian Subcontinent by the migrant Jat people of Central Asia in ancient times, phulkari was a part of every important moment of local life (weddings, birth, religious functions...).Generally fabricated by a family for its own use, the fact of having completed a phulkari signified an important step for a girl on her way to becoming a woman.

Techniques and patterns were not documented but transmitted by word of mouth. Hence, each regional group was identifiable by its unique embroidery work.The word phulkari usually indicates the shawl that was loomed and embroidered to cover women's heads or to be displayed in a gurudwara (Sikh temple).This tradition was often associated with the Sikh heritage but as it was also shared with Hindus and Muslims, it happens to be more geographically specific than religiously specific.



Threads
Embroidery work was invariably made on a plain cotton fabric (khaddar) whose thread was manually spinned, loomed and dyed with natural pigments.Its quality was evaluated according to the fineness and regularity of its surface.Khaddar could be of four colours, white being given to mature women or widows while red was associated with youth and was by far the most widespread tone. It is noteworthy that the most ancient fragments of red dyed (using madder) cotton fabric were found in Punjab and would date back to Harappa Civilization (Age of Bronze).

Black and blue colours were kept for everyday worn shawls as they prevented from revealing stains and dirt.The complete khaddar was always made of two or three stripes which were approximately 50cm wide. Depending on the region, these stripes were sewed before or after the embroidery work.It is important to notice that Punjab, known for its cotton cultivations, was a very appropriate area for a local production of khaddar.
                           
Embroidery
A phulkari was at times made by one woman and at times by several ones who could even work simultaneously on different parts or stripes of khaddar.As written before, these pieces were usually made by the family of the bride. However, as in the rich families a dowry could include several dozens of phulkari, some professional embroiderers were occasionally employed.The choice of patterns was partly driven by the social class of the bride.
For instance, some flowers designs in cluster stitch were only worn by the low class families while the high class would prefer flowers made with darning stitch.
                           
Most of the time, patterns to be embroidered were not drawn on the fabric beforehand, the embroiderer had to count each thread of the khaddar with meticulous care to build her designs.It is important to realise that a shift of one thread in the counting would have a visible impact on the final result...
As it was easier to count the threads of a light coloured khaddar than of a dark one, it happened sometimes that the fabric was dyed only after the embroidery work was achieved, thanks to certain preparations that would colour cotton but not silk.

                       
If the fact of using floss silk was providing beauty to these pieces, it was also a heavy complication added to the artists' task as this brittle and inhomogeneous material was not easy to lead through the khaddar without creating clusters and knots.
As in most of the oriental countries, the embroidery work was always done pointing the needle's tip to the opposite of the embroiderer. This gesture, as well as the energy that was injected into the work, had to come from the heart and go towards others.

Darning stitch was the most commonly used technique to make phulkari and the quality of a piece could be measured according to the width of this stitch. The narrowest was the stitch, the finest was the piece.In order to create an unusual design or to border the khaddar, some other stitches like the herringbone stitch, running stitch, Holbein stitch or button hole stitch were occasionally used.

                                   
Phulkari was not exclusively meant for women; it served other purposes as well. Hindu and sikh scriptures, for instance, were kept wrapped in phulkaris. When a rare Janam-Sakhi manuscript on the life of Guru Nanak Devji was lent by the India Office Library, London, to the Government of Punjab for the inspection of the Lahore Sikhs, coverlets of phulkari were offered by the Sikh community with a petition that they might be employed to cover the sacred biography of the Great Guru.
When displayed in exhibitions held in Europe-the Great Exhibition of London in 1851, of Paris in 1855 and the Amsterdam International Exhibition of 1882-the beautiful phulkaris caught the fancy of Europeans, and demand for them grew in foreign markets. "Industrial and Mission Schools," observed J. L. Kipling, "began to produce Europeanised versions of phulkaris of quite astonishing hideousness."
A dealer once showed the pattern that had been furnished to him by a European trader and smilingly observed that it paid him to make such stuff, but he could not see what the people of the U.S.A. thought beautiful or found useful in those monstrosities in black, green and red. This is Self-explanatory. The craft was lost, never to be revived. Maybe the time has come to set up an exclusive museum of phulkari, the lost craft.

MEGHWAL EMBROIDERY

DUE TO ITS location on the migratory routes from Central Asia,Africa,Afganistan and Pakistan to India,The Thar Desert has been subject to a variety of cultural influences that have shaped its crafts-notably embroidery,bandhej,(tie-dye),block printing and pottery.
Despite the later division of the Thar region through the creation of political boundaries,the crafts of the Thar continue to share a common vocabulary and sensibility,a phenomenon perhaps best exemplifiedd by the embroidery and applique of the Meghwal,an artisan community who proctice weaving,leather tanning and wood work.The Meghwal migrated from Pakistan to Kachchh and Rajasthan;a Significant number have settled in the villages of the Bajju region of Bikaner district.Embroidery forms a key component of their visual culture as it is executed on products that are worn or given during marriage and on dowry objects.Consequently, the embroidery make use of mirrors and is characterized by its refined craftsmanship,dense coverage, rich colours,and elaborated motifs and finished edges.Meghwal embroidery may be broadlyd classified as pako,or solid and permanent, and kacho,or temporary.

Detail of a bokani,headscarf embroidered for the groom.The peacoak is regarded as a noble bird and is symbolic of a bridegroom.Executed in suf embroidery consisting of triangular units done in surface darning stitch.Stitched from the reverse side over counted threads of the base cloth,with floss silk that rests on the face side,covering the entire surface of the unit and the back serves as an anchor.

Inset Wall painting:the peacock motif used in suf embroidery.

The pako tradition utilizes geometrical forms,densely covered embroidery of chain stitch variations and herringbone stitch,and block printed outlines for the embroidery.Kacho embroidery is distinguished by its use of counted thread work techniques such as suf,kharek,kambhiri and mucca.Suf has triangular forms executed in darning stitch;aggregates of triangles are used to create a variety of motifs such as the peacocks,tree of life,temple and hill.Kharek,a technique named after the date fruit,uses satin stitch filled in areas outlined by double running stitch.kambhiri has double running stitch,which is linear and grows in geometric progession.Mucca, a technique borrowed from Muslim embroidery,refers to the use of gold and silver thread which is couched on the fabric.
Fabric embroidered for making a kanchali,blouse.The Sleeves are to be attached on either side.A Typical and predominant motif of suf work,the gul flower is made up of 4 bitta units;a bitta is made of 2 triangular units of suf.

Percian impact on textile designs of India

Indian and Persian textile design work has proved popular in Britain from the seventeenth century onwards. They were consistently used to such an extent that they could honestly be considered as an integral part of British decorative arts history. They were consumed as both costume and furnishing fabrics and were produced in prodigious amounts as printed and woven fabrics.

Although large amounts of textiles were imported directly from source in what is now Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, attempts were made in Britain by a number of companies to produce styled, though not necessarily copies, of textiles from the source nations and regions. Many of these if worked successfully, sometimes proved even as popular as the imported versions.

The example illustrating this article was produced by the English company Inglis & Wakefield in 1849. It is a block print supposedly based on an original Persian design, though could well have been constructed in England as a composite of various Indian and Persian examples. Interestingly it seems to be firmly based on a woven construct, even though it is most definitely printed. There were a number of critics of the period who were concerned that crossovers between woven and printed textiles did not always work as both disciplines arrived at textiles from very different start points. Henry Cole in his Journal of Design and Manufactures drew attention to the issue of printed and woven textiles. In an 1849 issue, the magazine openly questioned a group of Indian and Persian styled fabrics of which this particular Inglis & Wakefield design was a part. 

'It is curious that these printed imitations of Persian or Indian patterns continue to have given to them the same regular treatment of lines necessary to the woven fabrics, for which they were first designed, where the form altars thread by thread, and it is worth while to consider whether this peculiarity conduces to their beauty or merely to their imitative association.'

Having said that, the magazine was also at pains to state that good design work could always be produced if certain elements were set in place. These design elements could give,

'...the same distributive treatment of the same rich full colours, added to the more flowing forms attainable by printing, would give much novelty, while the beauty resulting from the Indian principle of design would remain.'

The 'Indian principle of design' is an important point to be made when considering this particular design, but also that of the larger British textile design industry as a whole. Traditional Indian textile design work, whether printed, woven or embroidered, was considered to be consistently successful by many British design and decoration critics, particularly during this period of the mid-nineteenth century. It was often held up as a supreme example of the working virtues of the Design Reform movement. Many true examples of Indian work, rather than copies or re-imaginings, were praised in Britain as being probably the best contemporary examples of textile design then available. Compositional balance, harmony of colour, honesty to materials all were seen as essential to good design work. These were also seen to be core values of both the Design Reformers and later that of the English Arts & Crafts movement. 

The issue of good design versus immediate novelty through fashion is a long argued one that derives directly from the mid-nineteenth century. This is an issue that still plagues us today over a century and a half later. If anything it is perhaps even more acute in our own contemporary world considering the accumulation of problems that we are having to at least address, if not solve. Many of these derive directly from the industrialization of craft in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century, and the resulting industrialization of the retail market. More importantly, it also saw the industrialisation of the needs of the individual, creating an artificially constant consumer market that could never be satiated.

However, the fact that Indian textile pattern work was used directly, along with other more diverse and far ranging examples, both contemporary and traditional, is an important reminder of how intrinsically entwined Indian crafts, both decorative and ornamental, were in the more general world of the British decorative arts. It is also a reminder of the influence India had on the much more specific and pioneering worlds of the Design Reform and Arts & Crafts movements. Movements that were to fundamentally change many aspects of British design, decoration and craft, throughout much of the latter nineteenth century and well into the twentieth.

Banarasi Brocade

India has a diverse and rich textile tradition. The origin of Indian textiles can be traced to the Indus valley civilization. The people of this civilization used homespun cotton for weaving their garments. Excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, have unearthed household items like needles made of bone and spindles made of wood, amply suggesting that homespun cotton was used to make garments. Fragments of woven cotton have also been found from these sites. The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rig-Veda, which refers to weaving. The ancient Indian epics-Ramayana and Mahabharata also speak of a variety of fabrics of those times. The Ramayana refers to the rich styles worn by the aristocracy on one hand and the simple clothes worn by the commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles of India can also be obtained from the various sculptures belonging to Mauryan and Gupta age as well as from ancient Buddhist scripts and murals (Ajanta caves). Legend has it that when Amrapali, a courtesan from the kingdom of Vaishali met Gautama Buddha, she wore a richly woven semi transparent sari, which speaks volumes of the technical achievement of the ancient Indian weaver. India had numerous trade links with the outside world and Indian textiles were popular in the ancient world. Indian silk was popular in Rome in the early centuries of the Christian era. Hoards of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat have been found in the Egyptian tombs at Fostat, belonging to 5th century A.D. Cotton textiles were also exported to China during the heydays of the silk route. Silk fabrics from south India were exported to Indonesia during the 13th century. India also exported printed cotton fabrics or chintz, to European countries and the Far East before the coming of the Europeans to India. The British East India Company also traded in Indian cotton and silk fabrics, which included the famous Dacca muslins. Muslins from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were also popular abroad.(Muslin-a very thin cotton material) (Chintz-cotton cloth, usually printed with flowery patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance) The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers.  BROCADES - THE TRADITION OF BRINGING SILK TO LIFE  Brocade weaving, especially with gold and silver, has been an age-old tradition in India. There are two broad classes of brocades. Brocades of pure silk or silk and cotton blends and zari brocades with gold and silver threads. The most important material in brocade weaving is silk. It facilitates lovely weaves, is durable, strong, fine and smooth. There are several varieties of raw silk of which the chief ones used for brocades are Tanduri, Banaka and Mukta. Tanduri is imported from Malda and other places in Bengal. Banaka is thinner and finer variety and is mostly used to weave soft fabrics such as turbans and handkerchiefs. Mukta is a coarse and durable silk used for kimkhabs, as fine silk would not withstand heavy gold patterns. REFINING SILK FOR BROCADE MAKING  Raw silk is specially treated for brocades. It is first twisted (called 'silk throwing') after which the threads undergo reeling and checking for uniformity and roundness. When the yarn has been processed, it is bleached and "degummed", as raw silk has a gum-like substance (sericin) in its composition. This has to be removed in order to bring out the sheen and softness and to enable penetration of the dye. The task has to be done with great care as the fibers can weaken or get damaged. The silk is boiled in soap water for certain duration and then sent for dying. IMPORTANCE OF COLOR  Color plays a vital part in weaving brocade. The charm and subtle beauty of the brocade depends upon color synchronization. Colors are surcharged with nuances of mood and poetic association in fabrics and weaving as much as in painting. Red - the color of love. The three tones of red evoke the three states of love. Yellow - is the color of versant (spring), of young blossoms, southern winds and swarms of bees. Nila (indigo) - the color of Lord Krishna who is likened to a rain-filled cloud.  Hari Nila - the color of water in which the sky is reflected. Gerwa (saffron) - the color of the earth and of the yogi the wandering minstrel, the seer, the poet who renounces the world. Earlier, vegetable dyes were used during weaving. These produced fast colors, lasted for almost a generation, and remained as beautiful and vivid as ever. Nowadays aniline dyes have gained popularity as they are cheaper, less time-consuming and produce a larger variety of colors. MAKING NAKSHAS (DESIGNS) ON BROCADES  Making of nakshas (designs) forms an important part of brocade weaving. Banaras is the main center where the nakshabandha (designer) tradition prevails. The skill and imagination of nakshabandha plays a prominent part in making of designs. Designs are associated with legends and symbolism. The most popular motifs are drawn from nature. In Banaras, it is said that nakshabandha families were brought to this country during the reign of Muhammed Tughlak (1325-1350 A.D.). They were supreme masters of the art of tying designs into the loom. Local artisans and weavers learned this art from these great craftsmen. Some of these craftsmen were also great poets-perhaps they wove their poetry into their designs. One such renowned poet was Ghias-I-Naqsband, mentioned in Abul Fazl's 'Ain-I-Akbari'. The nakshas are first worked on paper. This part of the work is called likhai (writing). The nakshabandha then makes a little pattern of it in a framework of cotton threads like a graph. This pattern gives guidance to the working of that design into weaving. CHANGES IN DESIGNS THROUGH THE CENTURIES  Designs and motifs have undergone changes gradually and imperceptibly. These changes can be traced through paintings made during different periods. Ajanta and Bagh murals show the existence of different techniques of designs and textiles. During the Gupta period (14th century A.D.). Popular designs were formal floral motifs or scrolls entwined with hansas or sinhas -bird and animal depictions. In the 16th century, the old designs were replaced by Persian floral motifs. Akbari paintings show half-blooming flowers, the Jehangir period, full-blown blossom and the Shahjehan period, tiny blossoms with emphasis on the leaves. In the 19th century, with the advent of British rule, there was a drastic change in designs. Some brocades started depicting English wallpaper designs to suit the tastes of the British rulers.

Beauty of local textile traditions

Bridal costume of Kumaun region

This image was taken during my trip to Pithoragarh district of Uttaranchal

Pride mother of the bride in traditional costume of Rajasthan in Jaipur

Indian Textile History

India has a diverse and rich textile tradition. The origin of Indian textiles can be traced to the Indus valley civilization. The people of this civilization used homespun cotton for weaving their garments. Excavations at Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro, have unearthed household items like needles made of bone and spindles made of wood, amply suggesting that homespun cotton was used to make garments. Fragments of woven cotton have also been found from these sites. The first literary information about textiles in India can be found in the Rigveda, which refers to weaving. The ancient Indian epics-Ramayana and Mahabharat also speak of a variety of fabrics of those times. The Ramayana refers to the rich styles worn by the aristocracy on one hand and the simple clothes worn by the commoners and ascetics. Ample evidence on the ancient textiles of India can also be obtained from the various sculptures belonging to Mauryan and Gupta age as well as from ancient Buddhist scripts and murals (Ajanta caves). Legend has it that when Amrapali, a courtesan from the kingdom of Vaishali met Gautam Buddha, she wore a richly woven semi transparent sari, which speaks volumes of the technical achievement of the ancient Indian weaver. India had numerous trade links with the outside world and Indian textiles were popular in the ancient world. Indian silk was popular in Rome in the early centuries of the Christian era. Hoards of fragments of cotton material originating from Gujarat have been found in the Egyptian tombs at Fostat, belonging to 5th century A.D. Cotton textiles were also exported to China during the heydays of the silk route. Silk fabrics from south India were exported to Indonesia during the 13th century. India also exported printed cotton fabrics or chintz, to European countries and the Far East before the coming of the Europeans to India. The British East India Company also traded in Indian cotton and silk fabrics, which included the famous Dacca muslins. Muslins from Bengal, Bihar and Orissa were also popular abroad.(Muslin-a very thin cotton material) (Chintz-cotton cloth, usually printed with flowery patterns, that has a slightly shiny appearance) The past traditions of the textile and handlooms can still be seen amongst the motifs, patterns, designs, and the old techniques of weaving, still employed by the weavers. BROCADES - THE TRADITION OF BRINGING SILK TO LIFE Brocade weaving, especially with gold and silver, has been an age-old tradition in India. There are two broad classes of brocades. Brocades of pure silk or silk and cotton blends and zari brocades with gold and silver threads. The most important material in brocade weaving is silk. It facilitates lovely weaves, is durable, strong, fine and smooth. There are several varieties of raw silk of which the chief ones used for brocades are Tanduri, Banaka and Mukta. Tanduri is imported from Malda and other places in Bengal. Banaka is thinner and finer variety and is mostly used to weave soft fabrics such as turbans and handkerchiefs. Mukta is a coarse and durable silk used for kimkhabs, as fine silk would not withstand heavy gold patterns. REFINING SILK FOR BROCADE MAKING Raw silk is specially treated for brocades. It is first twisted (called 'silk throwing') after which the threads undergo reeling and checking for uniformity and roundness. When the yarn has been processed, it is bleached and "degummed", as raw silk has a gum-like substance (sericin) in its composition. This has to be removed in order to bring out the sheen and softness and to enable penetration of the dye. The task has to be done with great care as the fibers can weaken or get damaged. The silk is boiled in soap water for a certain duration and then sent for dying. IMPORTANCE OF COLOR Color plays a vital part in weaving a brocade. The charm and subtle beauty of the brocade depends upon color synchronization. Colors are surcharged with nuances of mood and poetic association in fabrics and weaving as much as in painting. Red - the color of love. The three tones of red evoke the three states of love. Yellow - is the color of vasant (spring), of young blossoms, southern winds and swarms of bees. Nila (indigo) - the color of Lord Krishna who is likened to a rain-filled cloud. Hari nila - the color of water in which the sky is reflected. Gerwa (saffron) - the color of the earth and of the yogi the wandering minstrel, the seer, the poet who renounces the world. Earlier, vegetable dyes were used during weaving. These produced fast colors, lasted for almost a generation, and remained as beautiful and vivid as ever. Nowadays aniline dyes have gained popularity as they are cheaper, less time-consuming and produce a larger variety of colors. MAKING NAKSHAS (DESIGNS) ON BROCADES Making of nakshas (designs) forms an important part of brocade weaving. Banaras is the main center where the nakshabandha (designer) tradition prevails. The skill and imagination of nakshabandha plays a prominent part in making of designs. Designs are associated with legends and symbolism. The most popular motifs are drawn from nature. In Banaras, it is said that nakshabandha families were brought to this country during the reign of Muhammed Tughlak (1325-1350 A.D.). They were supreme masters of the art of tying designs into the loom. Local artisans and weavers learned this art from these great craftsmen. Some of these craftsmen were also great poets-perhaps they wove their poetry into their designs. One such renowned poet was Ghias-I-Naqsband, mentioned in Abul Fazl's 'Ain-I-Akbari'. The nakshas are first worked on paper. This part of the work is called likhai (writing). The nakshabandha then makes a little pattern of it in a framework of cotton threads like a graph. This pattern gives guidance to the working of that design into weaving. CHANGES IN DESIGNS THROUGH THE CENTURIES Designs and motifs have undergone changes gradually and imperceptibly. These changes can be traced through paintings made during different periods. Ajanta and Bagh murals show the existence of different techniques of designs and textiles. During the Gupta period (14th century A.D.). popular designs were formal floral motifs or scrolls entwined with hansas or sinhas -bird and animal depictions. In the 16th century, the old designs were replaced by Persian floral motifs. Akbari paintings show half-blooming flowers, the Jehangir period, full-blown blossom and the Shahjehan period, tiny blossoms with emphasis on the leaves. In the 19th century, with the advent of British rule, there was a drastic change in designs. Some brocades started depicting English wallpaper designs to suit the tastes of the British rule.

Traditional dyeing and printing of rajasthan

This is a document I got while searching for traditional rajasthani costumes…….looks beautiful.Have a look…….

                                       Group of Mārwāri Bania women.

Hindu garb of a long white coat and a loin-cloth. He has not yet adopted the cotton trousers copied from the English fashion. Some Banias in their shops wear only a cloth over their shoulders and another round their waist. The kardora or silver waist-belt is a favourite Bania ornament, and though plainly dressed in ordinary life, rich Mārwaāris will on special festival occasions wear costly jewels. On his head the Mārwāri wears a small tightly folded turban, often coloured crimson, pink or yellow; a green turban is a sign of mourning and also black, though the latter is seldom seen.

Chipa family who are traditional dyers and printers,Look the blocks and the dyeing equipments they are having.............

2. Its origin and position.

The Rangāris say that when Parasurāma, the Brāhman, was slaying the Kshatriyas, two brothers of the warrior caste took refuge in a temple of Devi. One of them, called Bhaosar, threw himself upon the image, while the other hid behind it. The goddess saved them both and told them to adopt the vocation of dyers. The Rangāris are descended [430]from the brother who was called Bhaosar and the Chhīpas from the other brother, because he hid behind the image (chhipna, to hide). The word is really derived from chhāpna, to print, because the Chhīpas print coloured patterns on cotton cloths with wooden stamps. Rangāri comes from the common word rang or colour. The Chhīpas have a slightly different version of the same story, according to which the goddess gave one brother a needle and a piece of thread, and the other some red betel-leaf which she spat at him out of her mouth; and told one to follow the vocation of a tailor, and the other that of a dyer. Hence the first was called Chhīpi or Shimpi and the second Chhīpa. This story indicates a connection between the dyeing and tailoring castes in the Marātha Districts, which no doubt exists, as one subcaste of the Rangāris is named after Nāmdeo, the patron saint of the Shimpis or tailors. Both the dyeing and tailoring industries are probably of considerably later origin than that of cotton-weaving, and both are urban rather than village industries. And this consideration perhaps accounts for the fact that the Chhīpas and Rangāris rank higher than most of the weaving castes, and no stigma or impurity attaches to them.

5. Occupation.

The bulk of the Chhīpas dye cloths in red, blue or black, with ornamental patterns picked out on them in black and white. Formerly their principal agent was the al or Indian mulberry (Morinda citrifolia), from which a rich red dye is obtained. But this indigenous product has been ousted by alizarin, a colouring agent made from coal-tar, which is imported from Germany, and is about thirty per cent cheaper than the native dye. Chhīpas prepare sarīs or women’s wearing-cloths, and floor and bed cloths. The dye stamps are made of teakwood by an ordinary carpenter, the flat surface of the wood being hollowed out so as to leave ridges which form either a design in curved lines or the outlines of the figures of men, elephants and tigers. There is a great variety of patterns, as many as three hundred stamps having been found in one Chhīpa’s shop. The stamps are usually covered with a black ink made of sulphate of iron, and this is fixed by myrobalans; the Nīlgars usually dye a plain blue with indigotin. No great variety or brilliancy of colours is obtained by the Hindu dyers, who are much excelled in this branch of the art by the Muhammadan Rangrez. In Gujarāt dyeing is strictly forbidden by the caste rules of the Chhīpas or Bhaosars during the four rainy months, because the slaughter of insects in the dyeing vat adds to the evil and ill-luck of that sunless time.1[432]

---

1Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarāt, p. 178.

 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/22010/22010-h/22010-h.htm#d0e111

Kalamkari

Kalamkari (Telugu: కలంకారి) or Qalamkari is a type of hand-painted or block-printed cotton textile, produced in parts of India. The word is derived from the Persian words kalam (pen) andkari (craftmanship), meaning drawing with a pen.

a.     The craft made at Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh, evolved with patronage of the Mughals and the Golconda sultanate.

b.     There are two distinctive styles of kalamkari art in India - one, the Srikalahasti style and the other, the Machalipatnam style of art. The Srikalahasti style of Kalamkari, wherein the "kalam" or pen is used for free hand drawing of the subject and filling in the colours, is entirely hand worked. This style flowered around temples and their patronage and so had an almost religious identity - scrolls, temple hangings, chariot banners and the like, depicted deities and scenes taken from the great hindu epics - Ramayana. Mahabharata, Puranas and the mythological classics. This style owes its present status to Smt. Kamaladevi Chattopadhayay who popularised the art as the first Chairperson of the All India Handicrafts Board. Only natural dyes are used in Kalamkari and it involves seventeen painstaking step

History

Kalamkari craft is very old. This art knew its apogee in the wealthy Golconda sultanate, Hyderabad, in the middle ages.

Kalamkari art has been practised by many families in Andhra Pradesh and has constituted their livelihood.

In ancient times, groups of singers, musicians and painters, called chitrakattis, moved village to village to tell the village dwellers, the great stories of Hindu mythology. Progressively, during the course of history, they illustrated their accounts using large bolts of canvas painted on the spot with rudimentary means and dyes extracted from plants. The first Kalamkari had been born. In the same way, one found in the Hindu temples large panels of Kalamkari depicting the episodes of Indian mythology, akin to the stained glasses of the Christian cathedrals.

Kalamkari had a certain decline, then it was revived in India and abroad for its craftsmanship. Since the 18th century the British liked the decorative element for clothing

Technique

The cotton fabric gets its glossiness by immersing it for an hour in a mixture of myrabalam (resin) and cow milk. Contours and reasons are then drawn with a point in bamboo soaked in a mixture of jagri fermented and water; one by one these are applied, then the vegetable dyes. After applying each color, the Kalamkari is washed. Thus, each fabric can undergo up to 20 washings. Various effects are obtained by using cow dung, seeds, plants and crushed flowers.

WASHING/SCOURING CLOTH

Methods for scouring and bleaching of gada cloth vary. Some artists simply immerse gada cloth in cool water over night then beat the wet cloth to remove further impurities.

-Gada cotton fabric is scoured by immersing it overnight in a sheep dung/water solution (1 lump of dung for 10 liters of water).

-The cloth is exposed to the sun for a day by spreading it on the banks of the river.

-Water is continually sprinkled on the cloth to prevent it from drying.

-In the evening the cloth is washed by folding it and slapping it against a washing stone, followed by rinsing in the flowing river.

-The cloth is then re-immersed in a freshly prepared sheep dung solution and the process is repeated.

-On the second day the sprinkling is stopped in the late evening to allow the cloth to dry.

GADA CLOTH & MYROBALAM SOLUTION     

The first step in making a kalamkari painting is the treatment of gada, or unbleached cotton cloth in kaccha or myrobalam and buffalo milk solution. A desired size of gada cloth is scoured and bleached before it is treated with the myrobalam/ milk solution. A paste of powdered myrobalam fruit (karakkai, T. chebula) is mixed in fresh, unheated buffalo milk. For about 6 meters of cloth, 200 grams of myrobalam powder and about 2 liters of milk is needed. This solution is kept for 1 hour to extract tannic acid from the seeds. The cloth is then soaked in the myrobalam solution for 15 minutes, taking care to see that the entire length of cloth is sufficiently saturated. The cloth takes on a light yellow color. It is then squeezed/twisted to remove excess solution, and dried in the sun on a sandy riverbank for approximately 1 hour. The cloth is folded and can be stored in a cool dry place for up to 3 months. The high fat content of the milk prevents dye from spreading beyond the point of application. The immature myrobalam contains tannic acid that acts as the mordant component for the black dye (kasimi).

KALAM

The kalam, or bamboo pen, is the most important tool in painting kalamkari and gives the artform its name: kalam (pen)kari (work/action/agent). A kalam is made from bamboo splinters measuring about 4-6 inches in length, sharpened to a tip of desired thickness. A thicker point is preferred for filling in background color, while a finer point is used for outlines. About 1 to 1 ½ inches from the tip of the kalam, is a dye reservoir made from small rags of coarse wool that are wound around the bamboo and tied in place by cotton thread. This reservoir absorbs and retains the dye solution. 

According to many artists, cotton cloth cannot be used for the reservoir as it has higher absorptive capacity, no resilience, and would release larger amounts of dye when squeezed. Artists regulate the flow of dye down the bamboo kalam to the point through deliberate and controlled squeezing of the reservoir.

In this manner an artist can vary the thickness of the lines s/he draws by skilfully moving the tip of the kalam over the cloth. Kalams with thinner points are sometimes slit from the tip to the dye reservoir, and filled with a few strands of hair or thread to facilitate the flow of black dye. The reservoir of thekalam is never allowed to dry. It is washed and dried thoroughly before storage.

CHARCOAL SKETCH

Most artists will sketch a charcoal outline on the prepared cloth before application of black dye (kasimi). Some artists use charred tamarind twigs to draw, while others use commercially manufactured charcoal or lead pencils.

The following steps are taken to prepare tamarind twigs (chinta boggo) for sketching:

·         Dried twigs that have fallen around the tree are gathered and broken to a length of 3-7 inches.

·         To char the twigs, a shallow circular pit is scooped out in dry soil and a heap of sand is kept besides the pit.

·         The dry twigs are piled up to a height of 2-3 inches above the ground level. Some newspaper is also placed among the twigs to facilitate burning. The twigs and paper is set on fire.

·         When the flame dies down, sand is thrown over the twigs, and they are set to cool in the pit for 3-4 hours.

·         This slow cooling makes the pencils tough. The ash coloured twigs are then unearthed, rolled between one?s fingers to remove greyish bark until black color is revealed.The pencils so prepared can be stored until further use (do not remove bark before charring; else the twigs will turn to ash).

KASIMI (Black)

Black ink/dye or kasimi is at the basis of all traditional kalamkari paintings; it is used to outline all figures, write texts and narrative descriptions, and is the first ink to be applied to myrobalam-treated cloth. Kasimi is made from a fermented solution of rusted iron pieces and sugarcane jaggery. Scrap bits of iron are mixed with about 10 liters of water and  jaggery until it is thin to the touch and sweet to the taste.? Keep the kasimi solution in an earthen pot, cover and let ferment for 12-15 days (longer if in a cooler climate). A brown/grey/blackish froth forms at the surface, indicating that the solution is ready. The iron acetate is strained through cotton cloth into another container (earthenware, plastic, stainless steel, glass). If stored in a cool place, the solution can be kept up to one year. Iron bits can be reused in later preparations of the solution. Kasmi solution is used for outlining of figures/motifs and for filling in larger areas in black color. When the iron acetate is applied to treated cloth, a chemical reaction takes place between the iron acetate and the myrobalam solution, causing the kasimi to first appear as a dull, brownish gray, and after a few seconds reach a deep black color. Artists use a cotton rag (or the reservoir ball on the side of the kalam) to dab/clean up any excess or unwanted ink that falls on the cloth. It takes about 5 minutes for the kasimi to fully dry on the cloth.

·        When first applying kasimi to the cloth, the color appears dull, brown, gray and takes a few moments to turn a deep black-

CHAVALKODI & SURALPATTI (Pink, Red, Maroon)

Red shades are acquired through a lengthy alum mordant painting/dyeing process. Alum powder (50 grams) is dissolved in warm water (1 liter) until a thin and watery consistency is achieved. Artists paint alum solution on all portions of the cloth that should appear red. The cloth is allowed to dry for two days. It is then rinsed in flowing river water to remove excess alum, squeezed and dried in the sunlight. The alum solution can be stored in glass or plastic containers for several months. Once the alum solution is dried, water is brought to a boil in a large copper vessel. Chavalikodi root and Surulipatta bark is added to the boiling water. After about 20 minutes, artists submerge the alum-painted cloth and boil for about 40 minutes. The cloth is then removed, rinsed with cold water, and let dry. For a darker shade of red/multiple shades of red in a single piece, the entire process (treatment in myrobalam solution, alum painting and Chavalikodi root and Surulipatta bark dye vat boil) is repeated until desired color(s) is achieved. Some artists are also applying lime juice onto portions cloth that have already been dyed red, in order to obtain a light pink color. Typically lime juice is used to create pink line details on red figures or on floral motifs. At present it is important to note that most artists are using a synthetic form of alizerine for obtaining red colors on cloth. Typically the alizerine is mixed with alum and painted directly onto the cloth, however some artists maintain the two-step process of painting alum first then dyeing the cloth in a red dye bath (in this case alizerine).

BLEACHING

Preparation for lighter colors After the Chavalikodi root and Surulipatta bark dye bath, the cloth has a slight red tint. If the artist wishes to remove this red tint, the cloth needs to be bleached in a sheep dung and water solution and set overnight. The next day, the cloth is removed from the sheep dung solution, rinsed in flowing water, set on the banks of a sandy river bed, and sprinkled with water (until saturated) every hour for the entire day. In the evening the cloth is returned to the sheep dung solution and the process is repeated for 2-4 days, depending on the whiteness desired. Before yellow or additional colors are added, the cloth is again treated in the myrobalam-milk solution.

MYROBALAM FLOWERS (Yellow, Green, Brown)

A yellowish colored dye is obtained by mixing 150 grams of powdered myrobalam flowers and 4 liters of boiling water in an earthen or metal pot. The solution is stirred for some time and then set to cool for about 2-3 hours. Some artists have indicated that a better, darker shade of yellow is obtained if the solution is left to mature for a week in a glass (or non-absorbent) vessel. Before painting the yellow dye solution onto cloth, 10 grams of alum is added. All portions of a cloth that should appear yellow and green are painted with this dye solution. The dye can be stored up to 6 months in a cool place. Occasionally artists add a solution of aged mango bark and boiling water over the myrobalam yellow dye solution to obtain superior color fastness, or to create a slightly brownish color. The yellow solution, if set for several days, can turn a slight greenish tint. Otherwise, green can be obtain by painting portions with the myrobalam yellow solution, then treating the same portion of cloth with indigo dye. Once myrobalam yellow painting is completed, the cloth is dried in the shade. The next day, the cloth is washed well in flowing river water and dried in the sunlight. Sometimes pomegranate rinds are used to obtain a yellow color dye. About 200 grams of rinds are powdered and boiled in 3 liters of water. Once cooled, about 8-10 grams of alum is added to the solution. The pomegranate rind solution can then be painted directly onto cloth, creating a dullish yellow color.

INDIGO and NEELI MANDU (Blue)NEELI MANDU / AQUAMARINE ~Blue~

For the most part, the blue dye currently being used in Sri Kalahasti is a synthetic ultramarine blue. The solution, called neeli mandu, is made from about 10 grams of commercially produced ultramarine blue dye lumps dissolved in water. It is applied to the cloth on unpainted portions where a blue color is desired, or it is painted over existing yellow portions that should be green. Once dried, the cloth is then washed lightly in water and dried. Based on the existing method of using ultramarine blue, the color is not very fast, therefore the cloth is washed carefully. 

INDIGO (Neel) 
~Blue~

When indigo is applied by kalam / painting directly to the cloth, the dye is not fast. To insure fastness and stability of indigo, it is  necessary to sumberge the cloth in an indigo vat, using a resist (like wax) to protect portions of the cloth that should not be blue. While indigo is used in limited situations by kalamkari artists in Sri Kalahasti, the following method has been cited for indigo painting onto cloth. If this technique for indigo application was used, it would likely fade easily and disappear if washed.

1) An earthen pot is buried in the earth, filled with powdered indigo cakes or nil (1/2 kg) and water (15 liters). 

2) Another earthen pot is half-buried in the ground. The half that is left exposed outside is coated with lime. On top of this pot another earthen pot is placed, with a hole at the bottom. The upper pot is filled with paddy husk. Two solutions are then created, one a mixture of alkaline dirt (8 kg) and water (5 liters), the other a mixture of shell-lime (5kg) and water (5 liters). These solutions are poured over the upper pot, filtered through the husks, and drained into the lower pot. A lid is placed over the upper pot. The filtered alkaline-lime solution, collected in the lower pot, is called appala karam. 
3) In a small pot, 2 kg thagarsa (cassia tora or tandipa ginjalu) seeds are boiled an aluminium pot with 3-4 liters of water for about 30-45 minutes until the seeds soften to a paste. The paste is cooled, and then mixed with the appala karam until a solution is obtained with the same consistency as that of the nil solution (step one). The two solutions (nil and thagarsa-alkaline-lime) are mixed together and left for 10-15 days (7-10 days in the summer, 15 days in the winter), stirring twice a day until a yellow-greenish color is obtained and the solution smells like mud. The indigo solution is then ready for painting, turning blue when exposed to air (through painting).

SHUTTLELESS LOOMS

The fundamental principles of weaving are, SHEDDING i.e. dividing the longitudinal threads called 'warp' into two sheets; PICKING i.e. insertion of transverse thread called 'weft' into the space created by the division of warp sheets and BEATING i.e. pulling the inserted wefts one after the other to form cloth. There is no change in these principles whether it is Handloom, Powerloom. Automatic Loom or Shuttleless Loom technology.

Shuttleless looms have been developed to overcome the inherent problems created by the dynamics of the picking mechanism on the conventional Fly Shuttle Looms and make use of entirely different methods of weft insertion. Air Jet, Water Jet, Rapier, Gripper (Projectile) and Multi-Phase are the various types of Shuttleless Weaving Machines named after the method employed for weft insertion.

Shuttleless Weaving Machines are generally of wider widths enabling the simultaneous weaving of two or more widths; upto 400/420 cms. in the case of Air Jet and Rapier and upto 540 cms. in case of Gripper. The weft insertion rates achieved are 1560, 1480, 2850 and 2565 Mtrs./Mt. for Gripper, Rapier, Air Jet and Water Jet Weaving Machines respectively.Shuttleless Weaving Machines are sviitably designed to match the requirements of high insertion rates, shedding, beating and other auxiliary motions. Let-off and take-up mechanisms and weft monitoring are invariably controlled through microprocessors. The machines are equipped with features like automatic pick finding & repairing and weft accumulators. There  are FOUR different type  of shuttleless looms .They are

o    Rapier loom (single and double type);

o    Gripper or projectile loom;

o    Water jet

o    Air jet loom

·         Except the weft yarn is placed at the side of the loom, the weaving processes (primary and auxiliary motions) of shuttleless loom is similar to shuttle loom

·         Insert  weft yarn by means of projectile, rapier,  air and water  jet  Weft yarn  is placed outside the weaving loom. The speed  is faster, quiet and better fabric quality

Advantages and disadvantages of each shuttleless loom

1.     The  problems of shuttle  loom are the weft  yarns are placed inside    the shuttle. The shuttle  is big and heavy  and the machine speed  is low and noisy  to operate. In addition,  a new pirn must  be inserted to the  empty shuttle for continue  operation.

2.     Shuttleless looms eliminate these problems by placing the cone of yarn at the side of theloom.

3.     Once the yarn is bought across the loom, the yarn is cut, often leaving a little fringe of the edges of the fabric

4.     . Shuttleless weave 2 to 4 times as much as conventional looms per unit time. 

5.     . The cost of pirn winding is eliminated.

6.      Strain upon the warp threads is reduced due to smaller depth of shed

7.      Heavy cost of repairs and replenishment of worn out parts is reduced They can produce simpler tubes of fabrics on a large scale and provide opportunities for profitable exploitation in the long run. 

8.      The physical and mental strain upon the weaver is reduced 

9.      There is no risk of shuttle fly out owing to the absence of conventional shuttle and packing being positive

10.      Quality of the fabric gets enhanced because of a positive control over the weaving process.

11.       The looms are easier to work and manipulate 

12.      . Efficiency of the shuttle weaving shed is comparatively higher

13.      10. 5% reduction in value loss for a Rs. 60/- Metre fabric would ensure an additional profit of Rs. 3/- meter

14.       Higher production per loom.

15.       Speed is not the only criterion for the selection of shuttleless looms. Efficiency is also an important criterion.Efficiency advantage of 10-15% due to shuttle changes, Un weaving of damages, reduced time for warp changes canbe obtained from shuttlelesslooms. 5% higher efficiency would provide an additional profit of Rs. 1/- per meter.

Rapier Loom 

A  rapier loom uses a  rapier to pull the  weft yarn across the  loom.

·         It can be a single rapier or double rapier.

·         For a single rapier, a long rapier device is required to extend across the full width of warp.

For a double rapier loom, two rapiers enter the shed from opposite sides of the loom and transfer the weft from one rapier head to the other near the centre of the loom

·         The advantage of two rapier system is only 50% of the rapier movement is utilized in the weft insertion of single rapier loom

Projectile loom (I) 

·         The  picking action is accomplished by a  small  bullet like gripper which  grips the weft  yarn and carries it through the shed.

·         This is a more positive way of inserting the weft yarn without restoring to the heavy shuttle.

·         Because the mass of gripper is low, the forces needed to accelerate it are less and the picking mechanism can be lighter.

In addition, the running speed of the looms can be increased significantly compared with conventional shuttle loom. Small  bullet like gripper is passed from one side to the other inside the shed

Projectile loom (II) 

·         Several  grippers are normally used in the loom.

·         While one is crossing the loom with weft yarn, the others are returning to the starting position.

·         The dragging of the weft yarn across a loom creates strain on this yarn, so projectile looms are not suited for weaving with very weak yarn.

·         However, it is excellent for use with heavy and bulky yarns, as well as regular size yarns.

·         It is the most versatile of the shuttleless looms in regard to the range of fabric it can produce.

Air Jet (I) 

·         Jet looms take the weft yarn across the  loom by using a high speed of either  air or water.

·         The force of air or water carriers the yarn from one side to the other.

·         Jet looms are faster than projectile or rapier looms (picks per minute).

·         However, they cannot produce as great a variety of fabrics (no heavy or bulky yarns), nor can they produce as a wide a fabric (jets have less yarn-carrying power).

·         Jet looms also do less damage to the warp since there is no abrasion of this yarn by the jets of air or water, unlike the projectile or rapier.

Multiple  air nozzles are used to insert the  weft yarn into the shed.

Air jet (II)

With  the air-jet looms, the initial propulsion  force is provided by a main nozzle.The fabric width of air-jet loom is normally narrower than rapier or projectile loom

Water jet (I) 

·                    With water jet looms, there is only a main nozzle to provided the propulsion of the  weft yarn.

·                    The loom is very efficient, with only a small amount of water required and is the fastest type ofshuttleless loom.

·                    Water-jet looms are capable of producing 700 picks per min (ppm) for 75-inch fabrics compared to about 180 picks per min for shuttle looms with 44-inch fabric.

Water jet (II) 

·        Since  wet fabric cannot be stored in a  roll, water jet looms are equipped 

with  efficient drying units.

·        The units use vacuum suction and heat to remove the water from the fabric.

·        Water-jet looms are best suited for weaving filament yarns made of hydrophobic fibres (water-resistance fiber) like nylon, or polyester/cotton.

·        Yarns made of fibres that lose strength when wet (e.g rayon) should not be used.